Chapters 1–5 · Complete Exam Notes · All Key Theories, Models & Frameworks
OB is an interdisciplinary behavioural science that studies the phenomena and dynamics (processes) of organisations and relates these processes to their various human units.
Interdisciplinary behavioural science
Studies phenomena & dynamics (processes) of organisations
Relates processes to human units
Individuals, roles, dyads, teams, inter-teams, organisations, org-environment interface
| Science | Contribution to OB |
|---|---|
| Psychology | Individual behaviour, personality, learning, motivation, perception, attitudes |
| Social Psychology | How people influence each other, group behaviour, change processes |
| Sociology | Group dynamics, organisational structure, culture, bureaucracy |
| Anthropology | Culture, values, comparative studies across organisations and societies |
| Political Science | Power, conflict, authority, politics within organisations |
| Economics | Decision-making under scarcity, incentives, labour markets |
| Pioneer | Contribution | Key Idea |
|---|---|---|
| Robert Owen | Worker welfare pioneer | Decent conditions → more productivity. Shorter hours, housing for workers. |
| Hugo Munsterberg | Father of I/O Psychology | Applied psychology to industry. Psychological testing for selection & placement. |
| Mary Parker Follett | Power-sharing advocate | Organisations as communities. "Management is the art of getting things done through people." |
| Frederick Taylor | Scientific Management | Time-and-motion studies, task standardisation, economic incentives. Workers = units of production. |
| Hawthorne Studies (Roethlisberger et al.) |
Human Relations Movement | Workers' productivity changed when observed. Social & psychological factors matter as much as physical conditions. |
| Year | Milestone | Core Idea |
|---|---|---|
| 1924–32 | Hawthorne Studies | Social & psychological factors affect productivity. Birth of human relations movement. |
| 1943 | Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs | Motivation: physiological → safety → social → esteem → self-actualisation |
| 1960 | McGregor — Theory X & Y | Two contrasting assumptions about workers → two different management styles |
| 1960 | Simon — Administrative Man | Bounded rationality — decisions made with limited info & limited cognitive capacity |
| 1963 | Cyert & March — Behavioural Theory of the Firm | Organisations = coalitions of interests; decisions emerge from bargaining between sub-groups |
| Approach | Core Idea |
|---|---|
| Systems Approach | Human, material, information, finance units interact to produce outputs — they do NOT function in isolation |
| Socio-technical Systems | Technology of production is a major determinant in organising. Social and technical systems co-produce each other. |
| Democratic Approach | Human dignity and employee participation increases productivity |
| Contingency Approach | Appropriate managerial behaviour depends on the specific situation — no one best way |
| Interactional Approach | Continuous interaction between 'causes' and 'effects' — effects can also become causes (bidirectional) |
Invisible space of forces shaping behaviour before conscious decision. Classroom, office, family — each is a field.
Forces pushing toward change: new leadership, external pressure, incentives, crisis
Forces holding current state: habit, fear, loyalty, vested interests. Reducing restraining forces is MORE effective than increasing driving forces.
First order = rearranging within the existing field. Second order = changing the field itself (values, assumptions, structure).
PROCESS is the very basis of OB — the underlying human/behavioural dimension, contrasted with structure and content.
| Level | Process Type | Description |
|---|---|---|
| The Person | Existential Processes | How individuals make meaning, experience identity within systems |
| Interperson | Empathic Processes | How individuals understand and respond to each other |
| The Role | Coping Processes | How individuals manage demands, conflicts, and ambiguities of their roles |
| The Group | Building Processes | How collections of individuals become a cohesive, functioning group |
| Intergroup | Collaborative Processes | How groups work across boundaries — cooperation, competition, negotiation |
| The Organisation | Growth Processes | How organisations learn, adapt, change, and develop over time |
Figurehead — Symbolic head, routine social/legal duties
Leader — Motivates subordinates, sustains org goals
Liaison — Maintains networks of outside contacts
Monitor — Receives info to understand org & environment
Disseminator — Transmits info to org members
Spokesperson — Transmits info to outsiders
Entrepreneur — Searches for opportunities, initiates change
Disturbance Handler — Corrective action for unexpected problems
Resource Allocator — Approves significant decisions
Negotiator — Represents org at major negotiations
| Skill | Definition |
|---|---|
| Technical Skills | Ability to perform specialised tasks — domain expertise, tools, methods |
| Human Skills | Ability to work well with other people — communication, empathy, influence |
| Conceptual Skills | Ability to see how the system works and how parts interrelate — strategic thinking, pattern recognition |
| Level | Human Skills | Conceptual Skills | Technical Skills |
|---|---|---|---|
| Top Management | 30% | 50% | 20% |
| Middle Management | 30% | 40% | 30% |
| First Line / Supervisory | 30% | 20% | 50% |
| Old Logic | New Logic |
|---|---|
| Organisation is a secondary source of advantage | Organisation IS the primary source of advantage |
| Bureaucracy is the most effective form of control | Involvement and self-control are more effective |
| Top management and experts add most value | Every level should add value — distributed leadership |
| Hierarchical processes are key to effectiveness | Horizontal processes and networks are key |
| Organisations designed around functions | Organisations designed around capabilities |
Job displacement via offshoring · Cultural homogenisation · Increased competition · Environmental degradation · Power concentration in multinationals
Access to global talent & knowledge · Cross-cultural competence · Innovation through diversity · Scale & efficiency gains
Technology and globalisation created a level playing field. Key mechanisms:
Privacy defined: "Control over transactions between person(s) and other(s), the intimate aim of which is to enhance autonomy and/or to minimise vulnerability."
Monitoring communications, location, productivity · Background screening · Social media surveillance · Right to disconnect
Collection without informed consent · Behavioural targeting · Data breaches · Consumer surveillance as business model
| Trend | Description |
|---|---|
| Quality | TQM, Six Sigma, continuous improvement — quality as a SYSTEM property, not individual effort |
| Outsourcing & IT | Multi-sourcing, in-sourcing, open-sourcing — organisational boundary is dissolving |
| Diversity | Heterogeneous workforces — new identity salience, new inclusion challenges |
| Privacy | Employee and consumer data — new ethical demands |
| Talent Management | Attracting, developing, retaining — organisations compete for people as much as markets |
| Employee Engagement | Psychological investment in work — motivation, meaning, and the container that makes engagement possible |
| Category | Description |
|---|---|
| Positive Thinking | Mindfulness, creativity, innovation, extension motivation — attending consciously to what is working and what is possible |
| Future Search | Large-group process of visioning together — stakeholders co-create a shared future |
| Appreciative Inquiry | 4D methodology — Discover, Dream, Design, Deliver — builds on strengths, not fixes deficits |
| Positive Reinforcement | Intrinsic and extrinsic reward systems to sustain desired behaviour |
| Element | Definition |
|---|---|
| Mindfulness | "Heightened sense of situational awareness and conscious control over thoughts and behaviour." Three modes: categorical thinking, automatic routine, and zoning out. |
| Creativity | Mental process involving generation of new ideas or new associations between existing ideas. Basis of innovation. |
| Innovation | Introduction of a new thing or method — combination/synthesis of knowledge in original, relevant, valued products/processes/services. |
| Extension Motivation | Need to be relevant to others and society. Concern for others, pursuing superordinate goals, helping others, sacrificing own interest. |
A large-group planning process that brings stakeholders together to build common ground and create a shared vision by working together on tasks of mutual concern.
What gives life? What is working well?
Interviews & stories surfacing the best of what
exists. Appreciates the organisation's positive core.
Ask: "Tell me about a time
this org was at its best."
What might be? What could be possible?
Groups create images of org at absolute best.
Provocative propositions — stretch goals framed positively.
Ask: "If anything were
possible, what would our ideal org look like?"
What should be? How do we co-create it?
Co-constructing structures, systems, processes, and
relationships. Social architecture.
Ask: "What structures would make our dream
sustainable?"
How do we achieve it? What will we commit to?
Action planning — turning design into
reality. Commitments, accountability, momentum.
Ask: "What specific actions will
each of us take in 30 days?"
Definition: "A shared belief held by members of a team that the team is safe for interpersonal risk taking." — NOT a personality trait; it is a property of the system.
Asking questions without appearing ignorant · Admitting mistakes without punishment · Challenging the leader · Proposing ideas · Expressing disagreement
Leaders who blame on bad news · Culture where mistakes are hidden · Status hierarchies that silence junior voices · History of punishment for speaking up
Leaders who model fallibility · Explicit invitation to challenge · Consistency between words and actions · Space to think and speak freely · The container
Monetary: Bonuses, paid holidays, profit sharing,
stocks
Non-monetary: Recognition, awards, extra leave
External to the work
itself.
Increased responsibility · Greater freedom & job discretion · More interesting/challenging work · Opportunities for personal growth · Diversity of activities
Age · Gender · Marital Status · Intelligence (IQ) · Emotional Intelligence (EQ)
Perception · Values · Attitudes · Psychological Needs
Tenure · Organisational Culture & Climate · Reward System · Leadership Style
Economic Conditions · Social Norms · Family & Community · Technological Environment
"The individual brings a natural susceptibility to being pulled into certain group roles. This is not fixed personality — it is the result of your history meeting the group's unconscious need."
· Natural pull toward certain roles (rescuer, rebel, helper, identified problem, silent carrier of
wisdom)
· Product of your history + the group's need
· Active in every group you join
·
Changeable with awareness
· A permanent personality trait
· A sign of weakness or strength
· Chosen consciously (happens
before awareness)
· Something to be ashamed of — it is information
| Style | Productivity | Satisfaction | Turnover |
|---|---|---|---|
| Democratic | High | High | Low |
| Technocratic | High | High | Low absenteeism |
| Bureaucratic | Low | Low | Low (rules trap) |
| Autocratic | Low | Low | High |
· Cattell's 16PF
· Big Five (Digman)
· FIRO-B (Schutz)
· Freud (Id/Ego/Superego)
· Carl Jung & MBTI
· Transactional Analysis (Berne)
· Type A vs Type B
· Enlarging vs Enfolding
· Holland's Personality-Job Fit
Cattell identified 16 primary personality factors through factor analysis of language descriptors.
1. Warmth: Reserved → Outgoing
2. Reasoning: Less → More intelligent
3. Emotional Stability: Unstable → Stable
4. Dominance: Humble → Assertive
5. Liveliness: Sober → Happy-go-lucky
6. Rule-consciousness: Expedient → Conscientious
7. Social Boldness: Timid → Venturesome
8. Sensitivity: Tough-minded → Sensitive
9. Vigilance: Trusting → Suspicious
10. Abstractedness: Practical → Imaginative
11. Privateness: Forthright → Shrewd
12. Apprehension: Self-assured → Apprehensive
13. Openness to Change: Conservative → Experimental
| Trait (OCEAN) | Description |
|---|---|
| O — Openness to Experience | Range of interests and fascination with novelty. Imaginative, artistic, curious, creative. |
| C — Conscientiousness | Reliability regarding responsibility. Responsible, dependable, persistent, organized. |
| E — Extraversion | Comfort level with relationships. Talkative, outgoing, sociable, assertive. |
| A — Agreeableness | Inclination to defer to others. Good-natured, cooperative, warm, caring, trusting. |
| N — Neuroticism / Emotional Stability | Ability to withstand stress. Calm, confident (positive) vs nervous, depressed, insecure (negative). |
Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation–Behaviour. Three basic needs, each with Expressed and Wanted dimensions:
| Need | Expressed (What I do) | Wanted (What I want from others) | Core motivation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Inclusion | Socialising with others | Wanting others to include me | To feel significant and worthwhile |
| Control | Controlling others | Wanting to be controlled | To feel competent and responsible |
| Affection | Giving affection | Receiving affection | To feel lovable and loving |
Every group operates on TWO levels simultaneously: Work Group (rational, task-focused) and Basic Assumption Group (unconscious, emotional). Both are always present.
Group acts as if an omnipotent leader will save them.
Signs: Passive waiting,
helplessness, over-reliance on one voice
Leader's move: Colluding = exhaustion.
Rejecting = abandonment. Holding = hardest, most important.
Group acts as if there is an enemy to attack or flee.
Signs: Blame, avoidance,
scapegoating, silence
Leader's move: Leader often becomes the enemy. Neither
capitulate nor retaliate.
Group acts as if two members will produce the saving idea.
Signs: Two voices
dominate, others defer with vague hope
Leader's move: Return the group to its own
work. The saviour will not arrive.
| Structure | Principle | Function |
|---|---|---|
| Id | Pleasure Principle | Energy striving to satisfy basic drives. Instinctual. |
| Ego | Reality Principle | Seeks to gratify the Id in realistic ways. Mediator. |
| Superego | Moral Principle | Voice of conscience — how we ought to behave. |
| Stage | Age | Focus |
|---|---|---|
| Oral | 0–18 months | Mouth |
| Anal | 18–36 months | Bowel/bladder control |
| Phallic | 3–6 years | Genitals, identification & gender identity |
| Genital | Puberty+ | Sexual feelings toward others |
Four dichotomies based on Carl Jung's theory:
| Dichotomy | Pole A | Pole B | What it measures |
|---|---|---|---|
| E vs I | Extraversion — outer world focus | Introversion — inner world focus | Source of energy |
| S vs N | Sensing — concrete, known facts | Intuition — abstract, possibilities | How you collect information |
| T vs F | Thinking — logical analysis | Feeling — values & relationships | How you make decisions |
| J vs P | Judging — structured, planned | Perceiving — flexible, spontaneous | Relationship to outer world |
The four dichotomies produce 16 personality types (e.g., ISTJ, ENFP, etc.)
Regulates & Nurtures. Learned rules and values from authority figures.
Task & Rational thinking. Objective, data-based, present-focused.
Creativity, Reacting, Adjusting. Emotional, spontaneous.
| Type | Description | Result |
|---|---|---|
| Complementary | Response comes from ego state addressed; directed to initiating ego state. E.g., Adult→Adult. | Communication flows smoothly. Can continue indefinitely. |
| Crossed | Response comes from a different ego state than expected. E.g., Boss asks Adult→Adult; staff responds Child→Parent. | Communication breaks down. |
| Ulterior (Covert) | Two simultaneous messages — one overt (social level), one covert (psychological level). | Real transaction happens at the hidden level. |
| Type A | Type B |
|---|---|
| Always moving, walking, eating rapidly | No time urgency or impatience |
| Impatient with rate of events | No need to display achievements |
| Tries to do two+ things at once | Plays for fun, not to prove superiority |
| Cannot cope with leisure time | Can relax without guilt |
| Obsessed with numbers / quantity | Success not measured by quantity |
Career/job success · Goals of motivation & self-improvement · Growth · Non-traditional · Moves to influential positions · Reads, attends theatre, keeps up with events
Less career success · Goals of tradition & stability · Inner strength · Values parental ties · Not member of social/community groups · Does not join self-improvement programs
| Type | Prefers | Traits |
|---|---|---|
| R — Realistic | Physical activities requiring skill, strength, coordination | Shy, genuine, persistent, stable, conforming, practical |
| I — Investigative | Thinking, organising, understanding activities | Analytical, original, curious, independent |
| A — Artistic | Ambiguous, unsystematic, creative expression activities | Imaginative, disorderly, idealistic, emotional |
| S — Social | Helping and developing others | Sociable, friendly, cooperative, understanding |
| E — Enterprising | Verbal activities to influence others | Self-confident, ambitious, energetic, domineering |
| C — Conventional | Rule-regulated, orderly, unambiguous activities | Conforming, efficient, practical, unimaginative |
| Dimension | Low | High | Effective |
|---|---|---|---|
| Self-disclosure | Closed — withholds thoughts/feelings | Over-shares — can overwhelm | Moderately open: enough to build connection |
| Use of Feedback | Defensive — dismisses/ignores feedback | Open — seeks and uses actively | Seeks non-defensively; acts on it |
| Perceptiveness | Unaware — misreads others | Highly perceptive — reads accurately | Accurate reading + appropriate response |
| Known to Self | Not Known to Self | |
|---|---|---|
| Known to Others | OPEN AREA Freely shared info. Arena of effective communication. |
BLIND SPOT Others see this in you; you cannot. Only way in = feedback. |
| Not Known to Others | HIDDEN AREA You know but don't share. Self-disclosure moves this to Open. |
UNKNOWN Unconscious patterns. Revealed through therapy, deep feedback, crisis. |
| Theory | Core Claim | Key Idea |
|---|---|---|
| James-Lange Theory | We feel emotions BECAUSE we are aware of physiological responses | "We don't run because we are afraid — we are afraid because we run." Physiology → Emotion. |
| Cannon-Bard Theory | Physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously and independently | Body and feeling happen together, not in sequence. |
| Two-Factor Theory (Schachter-Singer) | Emotion = physiological arousal + cognitive label | Same physical state → different emotions depending on context and attribution. |
EI: "A type of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor emotions, discriminate among them, and use the information to guide thinking and actions."
| # | Dimension | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Self-awareness | Recognising your own emotions and their impact on behaviour |
| 2 | Managing emotions | Regulating emotional responses; not being ruled by feelings |
| 3 | Motivating oneself | Channelling emotions toward goals; delaying gratification |
| 4 | Empathy | Reading others' emotions accurately; perspective-taking |
| 5 | Handling relationships | Managing social interactions; influencing and cooperating |
| Individual Framework | System Dimension |
|---|---|
| Big Five / 16PF / MBTI | Valency (Bion) — The trait the group needs from you activates what looks like your "personality" |
| Freud / TA Ego States | Primary vs Secondary Process (Mindell) — Your conscious self vs what keeps happening despite you |
| Johari Window | Social Identity Map — Roles Given — What others see but you don't = roles the system projects onto you |
| Personal Effectiveness | Role Taking vs Role Making — Effectiveness is negotiating your role in the field |
| Emotional Intelligence | Container (Bion) — Individual EI is necessary but insufficient; the group container is a collective property |